Seder Olam Revisited: C48a- Aliyah
- Nov 15, 2025
- 20 min read
Updated: Dec 4, 2025
CHRONOLOGY OF JEWISH HISTORY
Generation 48: Hebrew years 5640-5760 (1880-2000 CE)
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Introduction
This 48th chronological generation opens an era of Jewish persecutions and the rise of Antisemitism, in the background of emancipation. It also witnesses the advent of Zionism, with the start of Aliyah, as a political approach to resolve the "JewishQuestion". Ultimately the "Jewish State" is created in the ancestral land, but not without ongoing conflicts with the surrounding Arab neighbours and the vast Arab world.
Hebrew Year | CE | Event |
5641 | 1881 | Assassination of Czar Alexander II |
5642 | 1882 | The first Aliyah |
5651 | 1891 | Hermann Adler, chief rabbi for the British Empire |
5655 | 1895 | Degradation of Captain Alfred Dreyfus |
5656 | 1896 | Theodor Herzl: Der Judenstaat |
5657 | 1897 | The first Zionist Congress |
5658 | 1898 | Herzl and Wilhelm II meeting in Jerusalem |
5659 | 1899 | Mark Twain, Concerning the Jews |
5663 | 1903 | The Protocols of the Elders of Zion |
5663 | 1903 | The Kishinev pogrom |
5664 | 1904 | The Limerick boycott in Ireland |
5664 | 1904 | Rav Kook and the Second Aliyah |
5665 | 1905 | Pogroms in Russia |
5666 | 1906 | Dorot HaRishonim (the first generations) |
5673 | 1913 | Joseph Hertz, war-time chief rabbi for the British Empire |
Year 5641 – 1881 CE – The assassination of Czar Alexander II
The assassination of Czar Alexander II in Saint Petersburg in March 1881 marked an evil turn for the Jews of Imperial Russia. His rule had been liberal compared to his predecessors and successors, but he had however to suffer several assassination attempts. Just before his demise, he was on the point to establish a constitution with an elected set of representatives, thus leading his Empire towards a Constitutional Monarchy. And before that, he had launched several reforms throughout his reign.
His assassination provoked an opposite policy which cast some suspicion about the murderers. His successor Alexander III and his government decided upon harsh measures such as suppression of civil rights, enforcement of the power of the police and of the secret services (the Okhrana) to infiltrate the various anti-governmental groups.
Concerning the Jews, rumours were spread that they were behind the assassination plot. Antisemitic riots, that became known as pogroms, started in Russia soon after and lasted several years, fuelled by the new regime's policy of finger-pointing against the Jewish community, used as a scapegoat against internal troubles of Imperial Russia. Indeed, a few weeks after the assassination, on the date of 4 May 1881 (Hebrew date of 6 Iyyar 5641), new laws so-called the May Laws were enacted against the Jews (to read about them, click here). It is worth noting that the date of 6 Iyyar is marked with events connected with the progress towards the creation of a Jewish State, the State of Israel. First, on that same date, in 1881, the policy that caused mass emigration of Jews to their future homeland was enacted. Then in 1920, on that same day, the San Remo Conference decided on 24 April 1920 (6 Iyyar 5680) to form a British Mandate over Palestine following the end of World War I. Finally, on 15 May 1948 (6 Iyyar 5708), the State of Israel was declared after the British Mandate had ended the day before.
As it happened before in History against rulers who pushed Jews out of their dominions (to see document C44, click here) Alexander III himself and his sons were plagued with evil from that time, either dying from disease or assassination thus causing the end of the Romanov ruling family with the death of Nicholas II and his family in 1917.
Year 5642 – 1882 CE – The first Aliyah
When the situation started to drastically worsened for the Jews of Imperial Russia, many of them emigrated to other countries from 1882 until the start of the First World War in 1914. Some 2.5 million Jews emigrated to USA and Western Europe (such as Britain) in that period. Other opted to go to Palestine, which was under the Ottoman Empire. They formed what is referred as the First Aliyah, meaning a mass emigration to Israel. It is estimated that some 30,000 Jews came in these times when about 50,000 Jews were already settled in Palestine. These local Jews descended from disciples of the Baal Shem Tov and of the Vilna Gaon who had made a "religious Aliyah" between 1790 and 1812. But this Aliyah was never taken into account by History, as the term "first" was coined by immigrants from the "second" Aliyah.
The first Aliyah was particularly facilitated from 1890 by the Russian authorities who approved the setup of the Chovevei Zion (meaning the Lovers of Sion) in 1891 in the city of Baku (now capital of the Republic of Azerbaijan). This organisation created Jewish towns in the Holy Land such as Rishon Le-Zion in 1882 (meaning "The First in Sion"), Rosh Pina (although the city was in fact already inhabited by religious families who had come earlier), Zikhron Yaacov, Hedera and so on. The financing of this organisation was secured by Jewish philanthropists of Europe such as Baron Edmond James de Rothschild in France. The Hovevei Zion was later merged into the Zionist Congress organization when it was formed.
Beside the Russian Jews, Jews from Yemen also emigrated continuously to Ottoman Palestine from 1881 until the beginning of the first World War (1914). The reason was that the Suez Canal was opened to transport and that Turkey improved the travel authorizations within their empire. So Yemenite Jews were free to move. One of their first establishment in the Holy Land was in Siloam (Silwan), in the southern hill of the Old City of Jerusalem.
By the year 1896, a census of the city of Jerusalem gave the following numbers: 45,420 total population, of which 8,560 Muslims (19%), 8,748 Christians (19%) and 28,112 Jews (62%). The Jews constituted 3/5 of the population of Jerusalem at the end of the 19th century. As the space allocated to them in the Old City was too small (the Jewish Quarter was 1/4 of the city), Jews were the first to establish settlements outside the city walls.
From the Bar Kochba revolt in 132 CE until the First Aliyah in 1882, 1750 years had elapsed. This number corresponds to 35 jubilee periods (of 50 years each). The number 35 has divine background as it is composed of the two significant numbers, 5 and 7. Equally to the fact that the Jews lost their nationhood in the 35th chronological generation, this time, after 35 jubilee periods they started their return to their ancestral land. Both events reflect God's will. For further information about the the numbers as Jewish symbols, click here.
Year 5651 – 1891 CE – Hermann Adler, Chief Rabbi for the British Empire
Nathan Marcus Adler served as Chief Rabbi for 46 years until his death in 1890 at the age of 87. He was succeeded in 1891 by his own son, Hermann Adler, who had also been born in Hanover. Below is an amusing anecdote concerning him:
Once he was having a lunch with British Catholic cardinal Herbert Vaughan. Cardinal asked the rabbi "Now, Dr. Adler, when may I have the pleasure of helping you to some ham?" The rabbi responded: "At Your Eminence's wedding". (Lawrence Jeffrey Epstein, "A treasury of Jewish anecdotes", 1989, p. 8)
Year 5655 – 1895 CE – The degradation of Dreyfus
Captain Alfred Dreyfus, who served in the French army and was from a Jewish family "exiled" in France after the region of Alsace had been annexed by Prussia following the 1870-1871 war, was accused by a military tribunal in December 1894 of having been a secret agent for the Germans in Paris. To affect this condemnation in the eyes of the public, at a time where the French army needed "good" publicity and support, it was decided to degrade Captain Dreyfus in the way of a formal and public event where scores of journalists were invited. The very read illustrated magazine, Le Petit Journal, published a drawing of the scene, where a "small" Dreyfus had his officers' symbols and sword broken by a "giant" French Hussar. The title of the drawing was Le Traitre (the traitor). The effect was devastating for Dreyfus in the French public opinion, and it can be said that, in January 1895, nearly all France thought that Dreyfus was guilty as charged. In the assembled crowd, shouts of "death to the Jews" were also heard.
Among the foreign press, Theodor Herzl, who was a correspondent from Vienna, witnessed the scene and, most importantly the flames from Antisemitic press in France which stressed on the fact that Dreyfus was a Jew. This circumstance changed Herzl's life for ever as, although he, as Dreyfus, was quite an assimilated Jew, he came to realize that assimilation will never work for Jews, who will always be finger-pointed for their race or religion as aliens or, worse, potential traitors.
The Dreyfus case became an "affair" after some time when voices started to raise that the trial had been unfair and that the army arranged a cover-up, which proved to be true especially after the real culprit of the leaks to the German office in Paris was identified but acquitted in 1898 by the same military tribunal ! This sent France into a crisis and torn it into two camps. It took until 1906 for the innocence of Dreyfus to be widely accepted (if not by a certain group of people motivated by Antisemitism), as he was finally acquitted and restored in the French army.
Year 5656 – 1896 CE – Der Judenstaat (The State of the Jews)
After the degradation of Dreyfus, Herzl was deeply absorbed in the reflection of what emancipation did to resolve the fate of the Jews. As he noted, France had been the beacon for emancipation in Europe, after having voted it first in a parliament some 100 years before during the French Revolution (see document C47a, year 1791), and Napoleon having imposed it to all his Empire in the years that followed, it was France who, in 1895, was first to prove that emancipation did not work, because Antisemitism was deeply rooted. Herzl's proposed solution was that Jews should have their own state. He published a book, Der Judenstaat, some months after Dreyfus' degradation. Herzl introduced in this book the word Zionism which was taken since then as the solution to the Jewish question.
Herzl was not sure about how his suggestion would be welcomed in the world, even in the traditional Jewish world which was foreign to him. In his introduction, he concluded:
Am I before my time? Are the sufferings of the Jews not yet grave enough? We shall see. Now it depends on the Jews to make it either a political pamphlet or a political romance. If the present generation is too dull to understand it rightly, a future, a finer, and a better generation will arise to understand it. The Jews wish for a state - they shall have it, and they shall earn it for themselves. (Theodor Herzl, "A Jewish State, an attempt at a modern solution of the Jewish question", Maccabean Publishing, 1904, Author's preface)
Herzl, himself an assimilated Jew, painted assimilation as an "utopia":
For they [the Antisemitic people] will not leave us in peace. For a little period, they manage to tolerate us, and then their hostility breaks out again and again. [...] It is only pressure that forces us back to the parent stem; it is only hatred encompassing us that makes us strangers once more. Thus, whether we like it or not, we are now, and shall henceforth remain, a historic group with unmistakable characteristics common to us all. We are one people - our enemies have made us one in our despite, as repeatedly happens in history. [...] Yes, we are strong enough to form a State, and a model State. (ibid., page 24)
The future proved him right. And his book generated tremendous interest and support in Jewish communities. Many non-Jews were also genuinely interested in the solution of a state for the Jews. It only took a matter of some years for a political gathering to grab this project and make it a reality rather than leaving the initiative as a dream.
Year 5657 – 1897 CE – The Zionist Congress
The first Zionist Congress was held in Basel, Switzerland, in 1897. The first elected president of the newly formed Zionist Organisation (ZO) was obviously the great creator of this initiative, Theodor Herzl, who served in this role until his early death in 1904. The financial arm of ZO was later formed as the Jewish Colonial Trust, with the goal to raise money, while the Jewish National Fund (JNF) was created subsequently with the goal to purchase land in Israel and develop agricultural Jewish projects or build new Jewish towns.
The first venue of the Zionist Congress attracted some 200 participants from 17 countries. The public declaration resulting from the Congress was:
Zionism aims at establishing for the Jewish people a publicly and legally assured home in Palestine. For the attainment of this purpose, the Congress considers the following means serviceable:
1. The promotion of the settlement of Jewish agriculturists, artisans, and tradesmen in Palestine.
2. The federation of all Jews into local or general groups, according to the laws of the various countries.
3. The strengthening of the Jewish feeling and consciousness.
4. Preparatory steps for the attainment of those governmental grants which are necessary to the achievement of the Zionist purpose.
The Congress even adopted an anthem, Hatikvah, which later became the national anthem of the State of Israel.
Year 5658 – 1898 CE – Theodor Herzl and Kaizer Wilhelm II
Kaizer Wilhelm II came to the Land of Israel in October 1898 to inaugurate the foundation of the Church of the Redeemer in Jerusalem's Old City. But his trip was highly politically motivated to increase German influence in the region and build strong ties with the Ottoman Empire. These ties would lead to a joint effort during World War I against the British who were de facto rulers of Egypt and operated the Suez Canal.
Theodor Herzl, through the arrangement made by a confident of the Kaizer's family, Rev. Hechler who believed in the necessity for Jews to return to the Holy Land in order to fasten the second return of the Jesus, obtained for Herzl to meet with Wilhelm during this trip in order to mention the "Zionist" project to build Jewish colonies in the Holy Land. Herzl's goal was to get patronage from the Kaizer because the Sultan (Abdul Hamid II) was opposed to any such initiative. Getting Jews to settle in the Holy Land under the umbrella of Germany was probably the best approach at the time, giving the circumstances. For the Kaizer, the Zionist project also offered some benefit: German "subjects" community would be settling in the Holy Land thus facilitating German influence in the region over time. Beside the Jews, a community of German Templers had already settled in the Holy Land since 1868 (to know more, click here), so the Zionist project was nice to have but not a necessity.
So Herzl traveled to the land of Israel at the end of October 1898 (to know more of his visit, click here). He briefly met with the Kaizer informally at the entrance of the Jewish agricultural school "Mikve Israel" near Jaffa (for the history of this school, click here for year 1871), but the next official meeting was supposed to take place in Jerusalem. Herzl and his colleagues arrived there by train (the new Jaffa-Jerusalem train service had been inaugurated some years before) but waited a few days until they could get a date and time for the appointment with the Kaizer, due to his very busy agenda. The meeting took place on 2 November 1898 in the tent of Wilhelm, raised in a land spot on what is today the Street of the Prophets (the land was later given by the Sultan to the Kaizer, and the house of the German Provost was built there). The Kaizer could not promise anything to Herzl but to try convincing the Sultan to grant the Jews a settlement policy in the Holy Land under German patronage. Herzl came out of the meeting with a feeling that no progress was made.
But things proved to be not as bad as he saw them. First the Kaizer did raise the proposal to the Sultan when he met with him in Istanbul on his journey back: again, the Sultan refused. This failure led Rev. Hechler, who had one British parent, to contact the British side to try get their support. The idea matured in the minds of some British politicians who shared the same religious conviction with Hechler. In fact, the idea of helping the Jews return to their ancestral land had started in Britain over 150 years earlier. Later these British politicians came to power and were at war against the Ottoman Empire. And finally, on the same day, 19 years after the Herzl-Wilhelm meeting, on 2 November 1917, Lord Balfour gave the famous "declaration" to the Jewish leaders in Britain (note: the Jewish calendar established by Hillel II, see document C35, is based on the 19 years astronomical cycle as explained by Abraham ibn Hiyya, see document C41, year 1122). The Balfour Declaration (see below, year 1917) favoured the establishment of a Jewish homeland in the Holy Land. It paved the way towards the future State of Israel, after Arab nations rejected any other proposal or compromise to do differently.
So, the Zionist project was supported by Germany first and Britain next. It was lucky that the Kaizer was not successful with the Sultan because, if the initiative would have succeeded, the "German subjects" Jewish community in the Holy Land would have been seen with suspicion during WW-I, as the German Templers were seen by the British rulers-to-be from 1917. Nobody can really know what would have become of a German-Jewish community after World War I, or after the raise of Hitler to power in 1933, but suffice to say that the Zionist project was in better shape with British support.
Year 5659 – 1899 CE – Mark Twain, Concerning the Jews
Following his journey to the Holy Land (see document C47b, year 1867), Mark Twain must have kept a particular interest in the resurgence of the Jewish people after nearly two millenia of persecutions in their exile. The Zionist Congress and Theodor Herzl's book must have drawn his attention and gave him some thought about the Jews. He wrote a small essay in 1899 where he concludes as follows:
If the statistics are right, the Jews constitute but one per cent of the human race. It suggests a nebulous dim puff of star-dust lost in the blaze of the Milky Way. Properly the Jew ought hardly to be heard of; but he is heard of, has always been heard of. He is as prominent on the planet as any other people, and his commercial importance is extravagantly out of proportion to the smallness of his bulk. His contributions to the world's list of great names in literature, science, art, music, finance, medicine, and abstruse learning are also away out of proportion to the weakness of his numbers.
He has made a marvellous fight in this world, in all the ages; and has done it with his hands tied behind him. He could be vain of himself, and be excused for it. The Egyptian, the Babylonian, and the Persian rose, filled the planet with sound and splendor, then faded to dream-stuff and passed away; the Greek and the Roman followed, and made a vast noise, and they are gone; other peoples have sprung up and held their torch high for a time, but it burned out, and they sit in twilight now, or have vanished.
The Jew saw them all, beat them all, and is now what he always was, exhibiting no decadence, no infirmities of age, no weakening of his parts, no slowing of his energies, no dulling of his alert and aggressive mind. All things are mortal but the Jew; all other forces pass, but he remains. What is the secret of his immortality? (Mark Twain, Concerning the Jews, 1899, to read the full text, click here).
Year 5663 – 1903 CE – The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
The Protocols are a pamphlet aimed to accusing the Jews of taking part in a global conspiracy for their hegemony over the world. It is now widely believed that the author was the head of the Paris office for the Russian Secret Police. It is not surprising that, while he was in post in Paris at the time of the Dreyfus Affair, he came up with the idea of such pamphlet, borrowing from previous authors such as Machiavelli, Montesquieu, Maurice Joly and Hermann Goedsche (a German Antisemitic writer). He was also influenced by the publication of Theodor Herzl's book which was parodied in the Protocols.
The pamphlet was first published in Russian in 1903 and remained unknown outside Imperial Russia. But, after the Revolution of 1917, it was taken to the Western world by refugees and translated into English very quickly. An edition circulating among U.S. government officials as early as 1919. Several U.S. industrialists, such as Henry Ford, were very Antisemitic and saw the Jews being successful in various parts of the U.S. economy. These industrialists used their influence over politicians to promote the Protocols in their country. Ford for example financed the publication of half a million copies in the early 1920's.
Although, as early as 1921, The Times in London exposed the Protocols as a forgery, the pamphlet continued its damaging work in Western societies. Strangely translations only reach the Arab world much later, in 1928 in Christian Cairo, but only in 1951 for an Arabic translation. Yet, the Protocols are still widely used in the Arab world today with regular publications.
Of course, the Protocols were used by the Nazi propaganda with the rise of Adolf Hitler in German politics. At a time when a global financial crisis hit the Western economies in 1929, a scapegoat was readily found in the Jews...
Despite conclusive proof that the Protocols were a gross forgery, they had sensational popularity and large sales in the 1920s and 1930s. They were translated into every language of Europe and sold widely in Arab lands, the US, and England. But it was in Germany after World War I that they had their greatest success. There they were used to explain all of the disasters that had befallen the country: the defeat in the war, the hunger, the destructive inflation. (Nora Levin, extract cited in article "Hitler on the Protocols"; to read it online, click here)
Year 5663 – 1903 CE – The Kishinev pogrom
The Jews of Kishinev in Bessarabia (today's Moldova) suffered one of the worst pogroms that took place in Imperial Russia. It started because Church leaders instigated allegations of blood libel after one Christian boy was found dead in April 1903. The riots started after the mob left the church on Easter Sunday and lasted for three days, destroying 700 Jewish homes and causing scores of injuries and deaths. The police didn't make any attempt to stop the riots. This reason and other ones led to the general opinion that the authorities sponsored or looked at these pogroms favourably in order to divert the people from the real problems caused by the regime as expressed in the following extract from an article published in The Times:
Monday was the day when the worst crimes were committed, and these were perpetrated by bands of rioters in different parts of the town. Many people believe the riots to be the work of organised companies, and I was informed by a Jew that he had been told by a member of one such company that each company had its number. I cannot express an opinion as to the truth of this but there seems no doubt that rioting in its worst form went on simultaneously in widely different directions. Besides the murders committed, the interiors of houses were utterly dismantled, pillows ripped up, Jewish Scriptures torn, floors destroyed and furniture thrown into the street; while at an early stage wine was broached, that which was not drunk pouring into the street. The local authorities took no effective steps to stop the riots, which continued unabated till 4 p.m., or later, the soldiers meanwhile being passive, if not sympathetic, spectators and the police contenting themselves with the arrest of minor criminals. (The Times, 13 August 1903, "The Kishineff Outrages", testimonial from the British vice-consul in Odessa)
Year 5664 – 1904 CE – The Limerick boycott
The news of the pogroms in Russia may have given an idea to John Creagh, a young Catholic priest in the city of Limerick, Ireland, to trigger an attack against the local Jews. At the time, the entire Jewish population in Ireland topped 5000 people, most of them living in Dublin. So to say, the Jewish community of Limerick was only composed of less than 50 families. The majority of them immigrated from Lithuania to escape the violance against Jews there. They were traders and dealers. The "boycott" was felt like a pogrom by the local Jews because it was accompanied by assaults, stone throwing and intimidation. It was not a single incident as it lasted for two years. It caused over 30 Jews (five families) to leave the city. After the incidents, Creagh was disowned by his superiors, who said that religious persecution had no place in Ireland. They moved him to Belfast initially and then to Australia. He died in New Zealand in 1947. It is worth noting that Limerick's Protestant community, many of whom were also traders, supported the Jews at the time.
Year 5664 – 1904 CE – Rav Kook and the Second Aliyah
Abraham Isaac ha-Cohen Kook was born in 1865 in Latvia from a father who had been a student at the Volozhin yeshiva in Lithuania (see document C47a, year 1797). Kook became Rabbi for the first time in 1887, and started to publish his first and important works. In 1904, along with some 50,000 other Jews from the Pale Settlement (they formed the Second Aliyah), he immigrated to Ottoman Israel to become Rabbi of the city of Jaffa, although most of the Jews living there at the time were non-religious and worked in the fields of the agricultural school nearby, Mikveh Israel (see document C47b, year 1871) or in new settlements established around the old city of Jaffa.
The Second Aliyah was one which created the Kibbutz as a community of members living and working together. The first Kibbutz was Degania, founded in 1909, on the eastern shores of the Lake of Tiberias (also called Sea of Galilee). In April 1909, some 60 Jewish families also moved out of the now crowded city of Jaffa and settled in plots a bit north from it to establish their new homes: this is when the city of Tel Aviv was first erected from the sands.
After World War I, in 1921, Rav Kook became the first Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel, which was then under the new British Mandate established as a result of the Conference of San Remo in 1920. Rav Kook is mostly remembered as having been the first religious figure to be openly in favour of Zionism, and his Religious Zionism ideology led scores of religious immigrants to make Aliyah . Rav Kook died in Israel in 1935 at the age of 70. One of his quotes is:
There could be a freeman with the spirit of the slave, and there could be a slave with a spirit full of freedom; whoever is faithful to his self – he is a freeman, and whoever fills his life only with what is good and beautiful in the eyes of others – he is a slave. (Extract from Rav Kook's work "Arpilei Tohar", cited in Wikipedia)
Rav Kook also considered that Theodor Herzl, or Zionism as a whole, is what is referred in the Jewish eschatological literature as "Messiah ben Joseph", who is the person or entity which is supposed to gather the Jews from the corners of the Earth and assemble them back in their ancestral home. Nobody can argue that this is indeed happening. Messiah ben Joseph will ultimately be killed, or terminated, and replaced by Messiah ben David, the forecoming Messiah.
Year 5665 – 1905 CE – The pogroms in Russia
The situation of the Jews in Imperial Russia became increasingly pressing. Despite the international condemnation of the Kishinev pogrom, more massacres continued to be perpetrated. In October 1905, in a single week, more than 50 pogroms were recorded, one of them being the Bialystok pogrom.
Year 5666 – 1906 CE – Isaac Halevy Rabinowitz
Isaac Halevy Rabinowitz was born in 1847 in Belarus from a rabbinical family. Like Rav Kook, he also studied at the Volozhin Yeshiva. In his most known six volumes work, Dorot Harishonim (meaning "The First Generations"), published in 1906, he covered Jewish history from the end of the Mishna period (1st and 2nd century CE) until the end of the Gaonim period (see document C40, year 1040), which offers a continuity of the Seder Olam Zutta (see document C39, year 804). He died in Hamburg in 1914.
Year 5673 – 1913 CE – Joseph Hertz, the war-time Chief Rabbi for the British Empire
Hermann Adler served as Chief Rabbi for 20 years until his death in 1911. He was succeeded in 1913 by Joseph Herman Hertz, a Hungarian-born rabbi who held this position during two world wars. Prior to coming to Britain, he held posts in South Africa and New-York.
Hertz was a strong advocate for Zionism in the 1920-1930 and his position antagonised the opinion of influential British Jews. He also mildly opposed Reform and Liberal Judaism. Beside these issues, Hertz was acknowledged for his erudition of the Scriptures, and he published a well-known Commentary of the Torah (1929-1936) widely used in British synagogues, as well as Book of Jewish Thoughts (1917).
During the German Blitz over London, the Great Synagogue was destroyed on 10 May 1941, Shabbat 13 Iyyar 5701.
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Albert Benhamou
Private Tour Guide in Israel
Cheshvan 5786 - November 2025
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